Manual scavenging
What is Manual Scavenging
Manual scavenging is cleaning human waste by hand out of septic tanks, sewers, and dry latrines. The tradition has been around for centuries, growing in popularity when cities and urban sanitation systems were developed. These jobs were assigned to particular groups or castes in many ancient societies; this was frequently a hereditary employment. This practice was connected to discrimination based on ideas of disease and purity as well as the social hierarchy.
Cleaning and removing human waste by hand is called manual scavenging, and it usually takes place without the use of safety gear or other tools. Workers frequently hand remove excreta from toilets, open drains, and sewers using simple instruments like brooms, buckets, and baskets.
Manual Scavenging is defined as the removal of human excrement from public streets, cleaning septic tanks , gutters and sewers.
Official Definition of the term
Term as defined in legislations
Prohibition of Employment as manual scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013. “Manual Scavenger” means a person engaged or employed, at the commencement of this act or at any time thereafter, by an individual or a local authority or an agency or a contractor, for manually cleaning, carrying , disposing of , or otherwise handling in any manner, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit into which the human excreta in any insanitary latrines is disposed of, or on a railway track or in such other spaces or premises as the central government or state government may notify, before the excreta fully decomposes in such manner may be prescribed, and the expression “ Manual Scavenging” shall be constructed accordingly.
This Act - 1. Prohibits the construction or maintenance of insanitary toilets. 2.Prohibits the engagement or employment of anyone as a manual scavenger violations could result in a years’ imprisonment or a fine of INR 50,000 or both. 3.Prohibits a person from being engaged or employed for hazardous cleaning of a sewer or a septic tank. 4.Offences under the Act are cognizable and non-bailable. 5.Calls for a survey of manual scavengers in urban and rural areas within a time-bound framework ACT 2013.pdf
Evolution of the definition of Manual Scavenging
Manual scavenging refers to the unsafe and manual removal of raw (fresh and untreated) human excreta from buckets or other containers that are used as toilets or from the pits of simple pit latrines. The safe and controlled emptying of pit latrines, on the other hand, is one component of faecal sludge management.
The official definition of a manual scavenger in Indian law from 1993 is as follows: ―Manual scavenger means a person engaged or employed, at the commencement of this Act or at any time thereafter, by an individual or a local authority or an agency or a contractor, for manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling in any manner, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit into which the human excreta from the insanitary latrines is disposed of, or railway track or in such other spaces or premises, as the Central Government or a State Government may notify, before the excreta fully decomposes in such manner as may be prescribed, and the expression ―manual scavenging shall be construed accordingly.
The International Labour Organization describes three forms of manual scavenging in India: 1. Removal of human excrement from public streets and "dry latrines" (meaning simple pit latrines without a water seal, but not dry toilets in general) 2. Cleaning septic tanks 3. Cleaning gutters and sewers Manual cleaning of railway lines of excreta dropped from toilets of trains is another form of manual scavenging in India. 4 Jajmani system, like property right system, assigns rights to clean some fixed number of dry latrines to a scavenging household; and these rights can be bought and sold, always connected to the women of the household (Willson and Singh, 2017).
The manual removal of human and animal excreta using brooms, small tin plates, and baskets carried on the head. The allocation of labour on the basis of caste is one of the fundamental tenets of the Hindu Situational Analysis and Recommendations on Manual Scavenging - Rashtriya Garima Abhiyan caste system.
Within this system dalits have been assigned tasks and occupations which are deemed ritually polluting by other caste communities - such as sweeping, disposal of dead animals and leatherwork. By reason of their birth, dalits are considered to be "polluted", and the removal of human and animal waste by members of the "sweeper" community is allocated to them and strictly enforced… Source:- ” United Nations Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, 27th Session, Geneva, 27-31 May 2002 2. 3)
Manual scavenging is manual removal of excreta (night soil) from "dry toilets", i.e., toilet without the modern flush system, especially in the Indian subcontinent. The system of employing people for public sanitation was introduced during the British rule in India perhaps in the late 19th century when municipalities were organized. The toilets often used a container that needed to be emptied daily. Chamber-pots were used by aristocracy in Europe, where there was often a need to avoid going out in the cold. Achaise percée was brought in when needed. Manual scavenging is said to have started in 1214 in Europe when the first public toilets appeared. The water closet was invented by John Harrington in 1596. In 1870, S.S. Helior invented the flush type toilet, and it became common in the western world. This caused other types of toilets to disappear in the western world. All surface toilets were abandoned in western Europe in mid-1950s…” Source:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_scavenging 3
This 'job' is for Dalits, mainly women and young girls. The 'tools' used are brooms, small tin plates and baskets, and true to the perverted logic of caste, the manual scavenger, the person who does the cleaning and carrying of other people's refuse, becomes the 'polluter', someone to be kept at bay, at the margins of society and unworthy of dignity and respect.” Source:- Human Rights Features, HRF/129/05-31/10/2005
| S. No. | Legislation | Year | Section |
| 1 | PCR Act | 1976 | Section 7A. Unlawful compulsory labour when to be deemed to be a practice of ‘untouchability’—
(1) Whoever compels any person on the ground of ‘untouchability’, to do any scavenging or sweeping or to remove any carcass or to flay any animal or to remove the umbilical cord or to do any other job of a similar nature, shall be deemed to have enforced a disability arising out of ‘untouchability’ |
| 2 | The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act | 1993 | Section 2. Definition—(j) ‘manual scavenger’ means a person engaged in or employed for manually carrying human excreta and the expression ‘manual scavenging’ shall be construed accordingly;
Section 3. Prohibition of employment of manual scavengers, etc.—(1) Subject to sub-section (2) and the other provisions of this Act, with effect from such date and in such area as the state government may, by notification, specify in this behalf, no person shall— (a)engage in or employ for or permit to be engaged in or employed for any other person for manually carrying human excreta; |
| 3 | The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act | 2013 | Section 2. Definition—(d) ‘hazardous cleaning’ by an employee, in relation to a sewer or septic tank, means its manual cleaning by such employee without the employer fulfilling his obligations to provide protective gear and other cleaning devices and ensuring observance of safety precautions, as may be prescribed or provided in any other law, for the time being in force or rules made thereunder;
(g) ‘manual scavenger’ means a person engaged or employed, at the commencement of this Act or at any time thereafter, by an individual or a local authority or an agency or a contractor, for manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling in any manner, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit into which the human excreta from the insanitary latrines is disposed of, or on a railway track or in such other spaces or premises, as the Central government or a state government may notify, before the excreta fully decomposes in such manner as may be prescribed, and the expression ‘manual scavenging’ shall be construed accordingly. Explanation.—For the purpose of this clause,— (a) ‘engaged or employed’ means being engaged or employed on a regular or contract basis; (b) a person engaged or employed to clean excreta with the help of such devices and using such protective gear, as the Central government may notify in this behalf, shall not be deemed to be a ‘manual scavenger’; Section 5. Prohibition of insanitary latrines and employment and engagement of manual scavenger—(1) Notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, no person, local authority or any agency shall, after the date of commencement of this Act,— (a) construct an insanitary latrine; or (b) engage or employ, either directly or indirectly, a manual scavenger, and every person so engaged or employed shall stand discharged immediately from any obligation, express or implied, to do manual scavenging. Section 7. Prohibition of persons from engagement or employment for hazardous cleaning of sewers and septic tanks—No person, local authority or any agency shall, from such date as the State government may notify, which shall not be later than one year from the date of commencement of this Act, engage or employ, either directly or indirectly, any person for hazardous cleaning of a sewer or a septic tank. |
| 4 | The Scheduled Castes and The Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, as amended in 2016 | 1989 | Section 3. Punishments for offences atrocities.—(j) makes a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe to do manual scavenging or employs or permits the employment of such member for such purpose; |
Term as defined in official government report
Annual Reports of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment: This ministry manages the NCSK, and its yearly reports explain the activities and measures done to improve the lives of safai Karamchari and abolish manual scavenging.
Annual Reports of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment: This ministry manages the NCSK, and its yearly reports explain the activities and measures done to improve the lives of safai Karamchari and abolish manual scavenging.
Reports of the National Commission for safai Karamcharis: The NCSK provides annual and special reports that offer valuable insights on the well-being and condition of safai karamcharis, along with the steps made to eradicate manual scavenging. The latest report released by the NCSK was 2021-22.
Reports by the National Human Rights Commission( NHRC): In its yearly reports and special studies on human rights in India, the NHRC often addresses topics related to manual scavenging and the rights of safai karamcharis.
Parliamentary Committee Report: A number of parliamentary committees, especially those that deal with social justice and empowerment, often publish reports that look at how rules and regulations related to manual scavenging and the well-being of safai karamcharis are being implemented. There are various committees who mentioned the issue of manual scavenging in their reports such as:
Kaka Kalelkar commission
The first Backward Classes Commission was established in 1953 and Kaka Kalelkar served as its chairman. The commission gave its report in 1955. The Commission described scavengers and sweepers as subhuman. The Ministry of Home Affairs brought the observations and recommendations of the Backward Classes Commission to the attention of all State Governments in October 1956. The recommendations highlighted the need for specific schemes covering each aspect of life to raise Bhangis from their "sub-human" level of existence, as well as the need to introduce mechanical and modern methods of cleaning latrines to eliminate the inhumane practice of doing this work by hand and carrying night soil on heads.
Central Advisory Board for Harijan Welfare
This board also reviews the work and living conditions of the sweepers and scavengers in the country and also recommended the government to introduce a centrally sponsored secheme.
Malkani Committee
In order to develop a plan to end the cruel practice of scavenging, which involves carrying night soil in buckets or baskets, the Board established the Scavenging Conditions Inquiry Committee on October 12, 1957, with Prof. N.R. Malkani serves as its chairman. In addition to banning the practice of carrying night soil as head loads, the Committee that published its report in December 1960 suggested eradicating filth and humiliation from all scavenging phases and enhancing living and working conditions as well as social status.
Committee on Customary Rights
In 1965, the Central Department of Social Welfare established a commission headed by Professor N. R. Malkani to look into the issue of eliminating the scavengers' customary rights. When scavenging is not municipalized, latrines are cleaned privately, and one scavenger has the inherited right to clean a particular latrine versus another scavenger through mutual understanding and agreement, according to the Committee's 1966 report. Along with receiving compensation in one way or another, the scavenger also builds a customary relationship with the householder.
Pandaya Committee
A subcommittee led by Shri Bhanu Prasad Pandaya was established by the National Commission on Labour, which was established by the Union Ministry of Labour, in 1968–69 to investigate the working and service conditions of sweepers and scavengers. "The Central Government should undertake a comprehensive legislation for regulating their working, service, and living conditions which should also provide for adequate inspection and enforcement machinery," was one of the committee's primary suggestions.
Term as defined in Case Laws:
Safai Karamchari Andolan & ors. Versus Union Of India & Ors
In order to solve the problem of manual scavenging in India, this historic case was essential. The Supreme Court ordered the federal and state governments to act immediately to identify, heal, and give manual scavengers alternative jobs. The court ordered compensation for the injured families and stressed the importance of strictly enforcing the regulations that forbid manual scavenging.
Delhi Jal Board versus National Campaign for Dignity and Rights of Sewerage and Allied Workers
This case brought attention to how dangerous cleaning sewers can be and called for the implementation of safety regulations, worker rehabilitation programs, and remuneration for those who perform these tasks. The Supreme Court gave the government instructions to put careful cleanup strategies into place and make sure sanitation workers are safe.
Bezwada Wilson versus State of Karnataka
Bezwada is an Indian activist and one of the co convenor and founder of the Safai Karamchari Andolan. Although not a case in traditional terms, well-known human rights activist Bezwada Wilson has played a significant role in promoting the rights of sanitation workers and opposing manual scavenging. His initiatives have made a major difference in increasing public awareness, influencing regulatory reforms, and promoting the application of the legislation to end manual scavenging.
Chinnamma versus State of Karnataka & Ors.
In this instance, the Karnataka High Court ruled in favor of the family of a man named Chenchaiah, who drowned from suffocation while cleaning a drain. The victim's relatives sought entitlement to rehabilitation despite receiving a payment of Rs 2 lakhs.udge Ashok B. Hinchigeri stated that manual scavengers put their lives in danger to ensure the comfort of others, using precedents from the Delhi Jal Board and the Safai Karamchari Andolan case. He went on to say that the court is required by the constitution to familiarize itself with the concerns related to the situation of those who choose to live such a risky and dangerous life. He claimed that when courts can hear cases of tax evasion, horrible crimes like murder, rape, kidnapping, etc., or people coming forward to complain that their fundamental rights have been violated, then the court can certainly take some time out to hear the grievances of the vast majority of people.
Dr. Balram Singh versus Union Of India & Ors
In this Case Supreme Court issued directions to the Union and State Government to ensure the complete eradication of the practice of complete manual scavenging. While pronouncing the judgment, Justice Bhat quoted the words of Dr. Ambedkar, “Ours is a battle not for wealth of power. It is a battle for freedom. It is a battle for reclamation of human personality.” The order of the bench further reads, “If you have to be truly equal in all respects, the commitment that Constitution makers gave to all sections of society by entrenching emancipatory provisions such as Articles 15(2), 17, 23, and 24, each of us must live up to its promise. Union and States are duty-bound to ensure that the practice of manual scavenging is completely eradicated. Each of us owes to this large segment of the population, who have remained unseen, unheard, and muted, in bondage and systematically trapped in inhuman conditions. The conferment of entitlements and placement of obligations upon the Union and States through the express prohibitions in the Constitution and provisions of the 2013 Act mean that they are obliged to implement the provisions in the letter and spirit.”
Shramik Janta Sangh Thr its general versus State of Maharashtra Thr its secretary
In accordance with the prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their rehabilitation Act, 2013, the Bombay High Court ordered the Maharashtra government and the Municipal corporations of Mumbai, Thane, Kalyan- Dombivali, and Mira- Bhayander to make sure statutory authorities at the state and divisional levels are established and operational.
Amit Sahni v. Govt. of NCT. Of Delhi
This case addressed non-compliance with the 2013 Act through a PIL seeking a ban on manual scavenging. This resulted in the Court ordering the Centre to file an affidavit on the matter.
PIL filed by National Campaign for Dignity and Rights of Sewerage and Allied Workers
This case highlighted issues such as increased indirect hiring of manual scavengers and lack of mechanisation in municipal bodies. It further focused on the absence of safeguards against hiring manual scavengers by private entities.
Abha Singh v. State of Maharashtra
This case addressed the non-application of relevant sections of the PEMSR Act in cases involving deaths of manual scavengers. And also sought stricter compliance with the provisions of the 2013 Act.
Vimla Govind Chorotiya & Ors. v. State of Maharashtra & Ors
This judgement focused on compensation and rehabilitation for families of manual scavengers who died on duty.
This court Initially filed to ensure compensation for affected families. It then expanded to supervise and order the implementation of the 2013 Act in Gujarat.
Anupriya Yadav and 7 others v. Union of India and Ors
This case was filed by law students based on a survey of scavenging conditions in Allahabad. Proposed suggestions for implementing the 2013 Act, including use of technology and proper training for those who are victims of this manual scavenging
Basil Attipetty v. Kerala Water Authority
This case sought compensation for two men who died in a manhole without proper safety equipment. Resulted in court-ordered compensation and emphasised the need for rehabilitation based on principles of justice and transformation.
A Supreme Court case led by Justice S Ravindra Bhat
Increased the compensation for manual scavenging deaths. The court criticised the government for not maintaining proper data on manual scavenging deaths and the number of manual scavengers. It also noted that the government's data was inconsistent and contradictory.
The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines ( Prohibition) Act, 1993
This Act prohibits the building or repair of dry latrines, as well as the use of manual scavengers. It requires the present dry latrines be demolished and that manual scavengers be rehabilitated by offering them financial support and alternative work options.
Prohibition of employment as manual scavengers and their rehabilitation Act, 2013
This comprehensive law, which replaces the 1993 Act, forbids manual scavenging in all of its appearances, including the risky cleaning of septic tanks and sewers. It provides a wide definition of manual scavenging and requires that those who engage in it be identified, surveyed, rehabilitated, and given access to alternate means of subsistence. Additionally, the Act specifies fines for noncompliance.
Protection of civil rights Act, 1955 (Revised)
This is an Act which came into effect in 1977 prohibited untouchability and made it an offense that could be prosecuted but not settled. Integrated low-cost sanitation programs were permitted in order to convert dry latrines owned by disadvantaged urban households into flush latrines.
Human dignity is an inalienable right which forms a part of the fundamental right to life (Article 21– Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India) as per the Constitution of India. ‘Dignity’ has been construed to include equal treatment and protection of the law, and equal respect. It is a unanimously accepted right, validated by Articles 1, 22, and 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The following is a list of provisions under the Indian Constitution which is supposed to cater to the rights of equality, respect, and dignity before the law.
- Article 14: Deals about the equality before Law
- Article 15 : It states that there should be no discrimination on the basis of race, caste , gender, religion, Birth of a person. However, Manual scavengers usually face discrimination on their caste.
- Article 16 : In matters of public employment guarantees equal opportunity to all its citizens.
- Article 17 : It deals with the provision for the abolition of untouchability.
- Article 19(1)(g): Provides every citizens Right to practice any profession or to carry any occupation, Trade, or business.
- Article 21: Right To Life Moreover, Article 46 and 338 are other rights which safeguard the manual scavengers as SC or ST.
International Experience
Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR)
Article 1: States that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Article 23: Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. https://www.un.org/en/udhrbook/pdf/udhr_booklet_en_web.pdf
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights( ICESCR)
Article 7: The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of just and favorable conditions of work. Article 12 : Recognizes the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes safety. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights.
International Labour organization (ILO) Conventions
Convention No. 111: On Discrimination ( Employment and Occupation) 1958, prohibits discrimination in employment and occupation. Convention No. 155: On occupational safety and Health 1981 aims to ensure the safety and health of workers. ( https://www.ilo.org/media/316471/download)
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
Focuses on eliminating racial discrimination in all its forms, which includes the caste-based discrimination often associated with manual scavenging.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
Addresses discrimination against women in all areas, including employment, and eliminates the unique hardships faced by women involved in manual scavenging.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Goal 6 aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, which indirectly addresses the need to eradicate manual scavenging by promoting modern sanitation solutions.
Goal 8 promotes decent work and economic growth, aiming to eradicate forced labor, end modern slavery and human trafficking, and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labor.
United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)
Various resolutions and reports by the UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation address the issue of manual scavenging, emphasising the need for states to eradicate this practice and ensure sanitation workers' dignity and safety.
World Health Organisation (WHO) Guidelines
WHO guidelines on sanitation and health provide frameworks for safe sanitation practices that eliminate the need for manual scavenging.
Foreign Domestic Laws
Nepal - Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan, 2011: This plan aims to eliminate open defecation and improve sanitation facilities, indirectly addressing the issue of manual scavenging.
South Africa - Employment Equity Act, 1998: This act promotes equality and prohibits unfair discrimination in employment. While not specifically addressing manual scavenging, it provides a framework for protecting vulnerable workers.
United Kingdom - Manual scavenging is not a prevalent issue in the UK, but the country has comprehensive health and safety regulations, such as the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, which ensure safe working conditions and prohibit hazardous labor practices.
United States - The US does not have specific laws on manual scavenging as it is not a common practice. However, general labor laws, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), provide stringent guidelines to ensure worker safety and prohibit hazardous working conditions.
Research that engages with term manual scavenging
- Life as a Dalit Views from the Bottom on Caste in India" by R. K. Kannan (2014): This study explores the socio-economic conditions and cultural stigmatization faced by Dalit communities, focusing on manual scavenging as a significant aspect of caste-based discrimination. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294735726_Book_Review_Life_as_a_Dalit_Views_from_the_Bottom_on_Caste_in_India_by_Subhadra_Mitra_Channa_and_Joan_P_Mencher_eds
- "Caste, Discrimination, and Exclusion in Modern India" edited by Vani K. Borooah and Nidhi Sadana Sabharwal (2015): Examines the socio-economic exclusion of Dalits, with significant portions dedicated to the persistence of manual scavenging. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281272137_Caste_Discrimination_and_Exclusion_in_Modern_India_Sage_New_Delhi
- "Sanitation Workers: Invisible and Exposed" by WaterAid (2019): A global report that includes a section on manual scavenging in India, detailing the occupational hazards and health impacts faced by sanitation workers. https://www.wateraid.org/in/the-hidden-world-of-sanitation-workers
- Cleaning Human Waste `` Manual Scavenging,” Caste, and Discrimination in India”: This 96-page report details how manual scavenging is coercive. Every day, castes hired as "manual scavengers'' collect human waste from all over India and transport it away in cane baskets for burning. This caste's women often clean the dry toilets in households, while men handle the more demanding duties like cleaning septic tanks and sewers. The research details the challenges that people must overcome in order to stop manual scavenging, such as threats of violence and eviction from nearby residents as well as intimidation, harassment, and illegal wage withholding by local officials. https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/08/25/cleaning-human-waste/manual-scavenging-caste-and-discrimination-india
- Implementation Review of the Prohibition of Employment as manual scavengers and their rehabilitation Act 2013 : A report titled "Strengthening Rule of Law for Advancing the Rights and Freedoms of Manual Scavengers in India'' was produced by the Centre of Equity Studies with assistance from the Association for Rural and Urban Needy and WaterAid India. The project was funded by the European Commission's European Instrument of Democracy and Human Rights. This report details about the covid times sanitation workers, Deaths of manual scavengers. https://www.wateraid.org/in/sites/g/files/jkxoof336/files/2021-10/Implementation%20Review%20of%20PEMSR%20Act%20131021_compressed.pdf
- The Complexities of Liberation from Caste : This paper engages with the multidimensional nature and extent of manual scavenging in Maharashtra, primarily focusing on the social groups involved in this inhuman occupation. Being part of a statewide study on the practice of manual scavenging, it attempts to unravel different forms of this caste-based occupation. It follows up with a critical analysis of the role of the state towards the abolition of the said practice and touches on varied aspects of the complexities of rehabilitation premised around a comparative frame, namely the prevailing scenario at the national level. https://www.epw.in/journal/2020/9/special-articles/complexities-liberation-caste.html
Related Terms
- Sanitation Workers: Often used as a more general term to refer to individuals involved in cleaning and maintaining public sanitation facilities.
- Safai Karamchari: A term commonly used in India to refer to sanitation workers, encompassing various aspects of sanitation work, including manual scavenging.
- Sewer Worker: Specifically refers to individuals who enter and clean sewers and sewage systems, often manually.
- Waste Picker: Individuals who collect recyclable materials from waste, often working informally in hazardous conditions.
- Dalit: In the context of India, refers to members of the lowest caste group traditionally assigned to tasks such as manual scavenging.
- Human Rights Violation: Reflects the viewpoint that manual scavenging is not just a sanitation issue but also a human rights issue due to the hazardous and degrading nature of the work.
- Hazardous Cleaning: Describes the risky and unsafe conditions that workers face when manually cleaning sewers and septic tanks.
- Public Health Risk: Focuses on the health hazards posed by inadequate sanitation practices, including manual scavenging, to both workers and the general public.
- Sewer Deaths: Specifically refers to fatalities that occur due to accidents or exposure to toxic gases during sewer cleaning operations.
- Scavenger Community: Refers to communities or groups historically assigned tasks related to waste and sanitation, including manual scavenging.
